Unit 1: Introduction: Introduction to Software Engineering, Software Components, Software Characteristics, Software Crisis, Software Engineering Processes, Similarity and Differences from Conventional Engineering Processes, Software Quality Attributes. Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC) Models: Water Fall Model, Prototype Model, Spiral Model, Evolutionary Development Models, Iterative Enhancement Models.
Unit 2: Software Requirement Specifications (SRS): Requirement Engineering Process: Elicitation, Analysis, Documentation, Review and Management of User Needs, Feasibility Study, Information Modelling, Data Flow Diagrams, Entity Relationship Diagrams, Decision Tables, SRS Document, IEEE Standards for SRS. Software Quality Assurance (SQA): Verification and Validation, SQA Plans, Software Quality Frameworks, ISO 9000 Models, SEI-CMM Model.
Unit 3: Software Design: Basic Concept of Software Design, Architectural Design, Low Level Design: Modularization, Design Structure Charts, Pseudo Codes, Flow Charts, Coupling and Cohesion Measures, Design Strategies: Function Oriented Design, Object Oriented Design, Top-Down and Bottom-Up Design. Software Measurement and Metrics: Various Size Oriented Measures: Halestead’s Software Science, Function Point (FP) Based Measures, Cyclomatic Complexity Measures: Control Flow Graphs.
Unit 4: Software Testing: Testing Objectives, Unit Testing, Integration Testing, Acceptance Testing, Regression Testing, Testing for Functionality and Testing for Performance, TopDown and BottomUp Testing Strategies: Test Drivers and Test Stubs, Structural Testing (White Box Testing), Functional Testing (Black Box Testing), Test Data Suit Preparation, Alpha and Beta Testing of Products. Static Testing Strategies: Formal Technical Reviews (Peer Reviews), Walk Through, Code Inspection, Compliance with Design and Coding Standards.
Unit 5: Software Maintenance and Software Project Management: Software as an Evolutionary Entity, Need for Maintenance, Categories of Maintenance: Preventive, Corrective and Perfective Maintenance, Cost of Maintenance, Software Re- Engineering, Reverse Engineering. Software Configuration Management Activities, Change Control Process, Software Version Control, An Overview of CASE Tools. Estimation of Various Parameters such as Cost, Efforts,
Unit 1: Introduction:
Topic 1: Introduction to Software Engineering:
Software Engineering is a discipline that deals with the design, development, maintenance, and management of software systems. It involves applying engineering principles and practices to software development, ensuring that the software meets the desired requirements, is reliable, efficient, and scalable. Software Engineering also focuses on the systematic and disciplined approach to software development, including processes, tools, and methodologies.
Topic 2: Software Components:
Software components are modular units of software that can be independently developed, deployed, and reused in various software systems. Components encapsulate specific functionalities or services and can be combined to build complex software applications. Examples of software components include libraries, modules, frameworks, and reusable code snippets.
Topic 3: Software Characteristics:
Software exhibits various characteristics that define its quality and behavior. Some key software characteristics include:
1. Functionality: The ability of software to perform its intended tasks and meet user requirements.
2. Reliability: The software's ability to perform consistently and reliably under different conditions.
3. Efficiency: The optimal utilization of system resources, such as memory and processing power, by the software.
4. Maintainability: The ease with which software can be modified, enhanced, or repaired.
5. Portability: The ability of software to run on different platforms and operating systems.
6. Usability: The ease with which users can interact with the software and accomplish their tasks.
7. Scalability: The software's ability to handle increasing workload or user demands without significant performance degradation.
Topic 4: Software Crisis:
The software crisis refers to the challenges and issues faced in software development, such as cost overruns, schedule delays, and low-quality software. It emerged due to the rapid growth in software complexity and the inability to effectively manage and control the software development process. The software crisis led to the emergence of software engineering as a discipline to address these challenges and improve software development practices.
Topic 5: Software Engineering Processes:
Software Engineering processes are systematic approaches used to develop, maintain, and manage software systems. These processes provide a structured framework for software development teams to follow, ensuring that the software is developed efficiently and meets the desired quality standards. Some common software engineering processes include requirement gathering, system design, coding, testing, deployment, and maintenance.
Topic 6: Similarity and Differences from Conventional Engineering Processes:
Software Engineering processes share similarities with conventional engineering processes, such as the use of systematic approaches, requirements analysis, design, and testing. However, software engineering processes also have some notable differences due to the intangible nature of software. Unlike physical systems, software can be easily modified, duplicated, and distributed, which requires more emphasis on flexibility, adaptability, and rapid development cycles.
Topic 7: Software Quality Attributes:
Software quality attributes are characteristics that define the overall quality and performance of software systems. Some common software quality attributes include:
1. Functionality: The extent to which the software meets the specified requirements and performs the intended tasks.
2. Reliability: The ability of software to perform consistently and predictably under different conditions.
3. Usability: The ease with which users can interact with the software and accomplish their tasks.
4. Efficiency: The optimal utilization of system resources, such as memory and processing power, by the software.
5. Maintainability: The ease with which software can be modified, enhanced, or repaired.
6. Portability: The ability of software to run on different platforms and operating systems.
7. Security: The protection of software and data against unauthorized access, vulnerabilities, and malicious attacks.
Topic 8: Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC):
The Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC) models represent different approaches or methodologies used to guide the software development process from inception to deployment and maintenance. Each model defines a series of phases, activities, and deliverables that help in managing the development process. Here's an in-depth explanation of the common SDLC models:
1. Waterfall Model:
The Waterfall model is a linear and sequential SDLC model. It consists of distinct phases that are executed in a top-down manner, with each phase dependent on the completion of the previous one. The phases include requirements gathering, system design, implementation, testing, deployment, and maintenance. Once a phase is completed, it is typically not revisited. This model is suitable for projects with well-defined and stable requirements.
2. Prototype Model:
The Prototype model focuses on creating an initial working version of the software, called a prototype, to gather feedback and refine requirements. The development process involves iterative cycles of prototyping, user evaluation, and refinement. This model is beneficial when requirements are unclear or rapidly changing, as it allows stakeholders to visualize and provide feedback on the software early in the development process.
3. Spiral Model:
The Spiral model is an iterative and risk-driven SDLC model. It combines elements of the Waterfall model and prototyping. The development process progresses through multiple iterations, each consisting of planning, risk analysis, development, and evaluation. The model emphasizes identifying and mitigating risks early in the development process. It is suitable for large-scale projects with changing requirements and high risk factors.
4. Evolutionary Development Models:
Evolutionary development models, such as the Agile and Scrum approaches, focus on iterative and incremental development. These models prioritize adaptability, collaboration, and quick response to changes. The development process is divided into short iterations or sprints, with each iteration delivering a potentially shippable product increment. These models emphasize customer involvement, continuous feedback, and continuous improvement.
5. Iterative Enhancement Models:
Iterative Enhancement models involve iterative development cycles with a focus on enhancing and expanding the software in each iteration. The development process consists of a series of iterations, where each iteration builds upon the previous one, incorporating new features or improvements. This model allows for flexibility, adaptability, and progressive refinement of the software based on user feedback and changing requirements.
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Unit 2: Software Requirement Specifications (SRS):
1. Requirement Engineering Process:
Requirement Engineering (RE) is the process of eliciting, analyzing, documenting, reviewing, and managing user needs and system requirements. It involves understanding and capturing what the software should do and how it should behave. The RE process typically includes the following activities:
- Elicitation: Gathering requirements from stakeholders, end-users, and other relevant sources.
- Analysis: Analyzing and refining requirements to ensure clarity, consistency, and feasibility.
- Documentation: Documenting requirements in a structured manner for better understanding and communication.
- Review: Reviewing requirements with stakeholders to validate their correctness and completeness.
- Management: Managing requirements throughout the software development lifecycle, including changes and traceability.
2. Feasibility Study:
A feasibility study assesses the practicality and viability of a software project. It aims to determine whether the proposed system is technically, economically, and operationally feasible. The study examines factors such as project scope, resource availability, technology constraints, cost-benefit analysis, and potential risks. The outcome of a feasibility study helps stakeholders make informed decisions about proceeding with the project.
3. Information Modeling:
Information modeling is the process of creating conceptual models that represent the information requirements of a system. It involves identifying entities, attributes, relationships, and constraints to capture the structure and behavior of the information within the system. Two commonly used techniques for information modeling are:
- Data Flow Diagrams (DFDs): DFDs illustrate how data flows through a system, representing processes, data stores, data inputs, and outputs.
- Entity-Relationship Diagrams (ERDs): ERDs depict the entities, attributes, and relationships in a system, helping to visualize the data structure.
4. Decision Tables:
Decision tables are a modeling technique used to represent complex business rules or decision logic in a tabular format. Each row in the table represents a combination of conditions or inputs, and the corresponding columns define the actions or outputs. Decision tables provide a clear and structured representation of decision rules, making them easier to understand, analyze, and validate.
5. Software Requirements Specification (SRS) Document:
The Software Requirements Specification (SRS) document captures the functional and non-functional requirements of the software system. It provides a detailed description of what the software should do, its features, interfaces, performance criteria, and constraints. The SRS document serves as a reference for stakeholders, developers, and testers, ensuring a shared understanding of the software requirements.
6. IEEE Standards for SRS:
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) has defined standards for creating Software Requirements Specifications (SRS) documents. The IEEE 830 standard provides guidelines for the content and structure of an SRS, including sections such as introduction, functional requirements, non-functional requirements, user interfaces, system models, and more. These standards help ensure consistency, clarity, and completeness in documenting software requirements.
7. Software Quality Assurance (SQA):
Software Quality Assurance (SQA) is a set of activities and processes focused on ensuring that software products and processes meet defined quality standards. It involves two main aspects:
- Verification: Ensuring that work products, such as requirements, design, and code, adhere to specified standards and guidelines.
- Validation: Evaluating the software during and at the end of the development process to determine if it satisfies the specified requirements and user needs.
8. SQA Plans:
SQA plans outline the strategies, activities, and resources required to perform software quality assurance. These plans define the scope of quality activities, including testing, reviews, audits, and process improvement. SQA plans also establish criteria for measuring and monitoring quality, as well as roles and responsibilities of the SQA team.
9. Software Quality Frameworks:
Software Quality Frameworks provide a structured approach to managing and improving the quality of software products and processes. These frameworks establish guidelines, principles, and best practices that organizations can follow to achieve desired levels of quality. Here are some commonly used software quality frameworks:
1. Capability Maturity Model Integration (CMMI):
CMMI is a comprehensive framework that assesses and guides organizations in improving their processes across various domains, including software development. It provides a set of maturity levels that organizations can strive to achieve, ranging from initial (Level 1) to optimized (Level 5). CMMI focuses on process standardization, measurement, and continuous improvement to enhance quality and efficiency.
2. ISO 25000 (SQuaRE):
ISO 25000, also known as the Software Product Quality Requirements and Evaluation (SQuaRE), is a series of standards that define a systematic approach to evaluating and managing software product quality. It covers various quality aspects, including functionality, reliability, performance, maintainability, and usability. ISO 25000 provides a framework for specifying quality requirements, evaluating software quality, and improving quality throughout the software lifecycle.
3. Six Sigma:
Six Sigma is a data-driven methodology aimed at reducing defects and improving process efficiency and effectiveness. It follows a structured approach, using statistical analysis and process improvement techniques to identify and eliminate causes of defects and variations. Six Sigma focuses on achieving high levels of quality by targeting process improvement and reducing variability within the software development process.
4. Lean Software Development:
Lean Software Development draws inspiration from lean manufacturing principles and aims to eliminate waste, optimize value, and continuously improve the software development process. It emphasizes delivering value to customers, reducing unnecessary activities, and fostering collaboration and transparency. Lean Software Development focuses on minimizing defects, delays, and resource wastage to improve overall quality and customer satisfaction.
5. ITIL (Information Technology Infrastructure Library):
ITIL is a widely adopted framework for IT Service Management (ITSM). Although it is primarily focused on IT service management, it provides guidelines and best practices for managing the quality of IT services and aligning them with business objectives. ITIL emphasizes processes, service level agreements, and continuous improvement to ensure high-quality service delivery and customer satisfaction.
10. ISO 9000 Models:
ISO 9000 is a set of international standards that outline the criteria for establishing, implementing, and maintaining an effective Quality Management System (QMS). The ISO 9000 models provide a framework for organizations to ensure consistent quality in their processes, products, and services. These models emphasize customer satisfaction, continuous improvement, and adherence to documented procedures.
11. SEI-CMM Model:
The SEI-CMM (Software Engineering Institute's Capability Maturity Model) is a framework that assesses and improves an organization's software development processes. It consists of five levels of maturity, ranging from initial (Level 1) to optimized (Level 5). Each level represents a progressively more mature and well-defined set of processes. The SEI-CMM helps organizations evaluate and enhance their software development capabilities, leading to improved quality, efficiency, and predictability.
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Unit 3: Software Design:
1. Basic Concept of Software Design:
Software design refers to the process of transforming requirements into a well-structured solution that can be implemented. It involves making design decisions regarding the overall system architecture, decomposition of components, and the organization of modules. The goal of software design is to create a design that is modular, maintainable, and scalable.
2. Architectural Design:
Architectural design focuses on defining the overall structure and organization of a software system. It involves identifying major components, their interactions, and the allocation of responsibilities. Architectural design decisions have a significant impact on system qualities such as performance, scalability, and maintainability. Common architectural styles include layered architecture, client-server architecture, and microservices architecture.
3. Low-Level Design:
Low-level design focuses on the detailed design of individual components or modules within the system. It involves defining the internal structure, interfaces, algorithms, and data structures for each module. Low-level design techniques provide a blueprint for implementing each component of the system effectively.
4. Modularization:
Modularization is the process of decomposing a system into modular components or modules. Each module should have a well-defined and cohesive responsibility. Modularization helps in managing complexity, enhancing reusability, and facilitating parallel development. It also enables better maintainability and enables changes to be localized to specific modules.
5. Design Structure Charts:
Design Structure Charts (DSCs) are graphical representations of a software system's modular structure. DSCs depict modules as nodes and show the relationships and dependencies between them. DSCs help visualize the organization and interaction of modules, aiding in understanding the overall system design.
6. Pseudo Codes:
Pseudo code is a high-level, informal programming language-like notation used to describe algorithms or program logic. It is used during the design phase to represent the intended behavior of the software without being tied to a specific programming language syntax. Pseudo code helps in designing and communicating algorithms in a more understandable and language-independent manner.
7. Flow Charts:
Flow charts are graphical representations of a process or algorithm using symbols and arrows to depict the flow of control. They provide a visual representation of the logical steps involved in a process or algorithm, including decision points and conditional branching. Flow charts aid in understanding, documenting, and designing complex processes or algorithms.
8. Coupling and Cohesion Measures:
Coupling refers to the degree of interdependence between modules in a system. It measures how closely modules are connected to each other. Cohesion, on the other hand, measures the degree to which elements within a module are related and contribute to a single purpose. High cohesion and low coupling are desirable design qualities as they promote modularity, maintainability, and reusability.
9. Design Strategies:
Design strategies refer to the approaches and methodologies used in software design. Some common design strategies include:
- Function-Oriented Design: This approach focuses on organizing the system's design around its functionality or tasks.
- Object-Oriented Design: Object-oriented design organizes the system's design around objects, their attributes, and their interactions.
- Top-Down Design: This strategy starts with the high-level system design and gradually decomposes it into lower-level modules or components.
- Bottom-Up Design: This strategy begins with the low-level design of individual modules and progressively builds up to create the overall system.
10. Software Measurement and Metrics:
Software measurement involves quantifying various aspects of software products and processes to assess their quality, efficiency, and performance. Metrics are specific measurements used to evaluate and track these aspects. Two common categories of software metrics include:
- Size-Oriented Measures: These measures quantify the size of the software product based on different units, such as lines of code or function points. Examples include Hale
- Halestead’s Software Science: Halestead’s Software Science is a set of size-oriented measures that assess software complexity and effort. It includes metrics such as program length, vocabulary, difficulty, and volume. These metrics help estimate the effort required to develop and maintain software.
- Function Point (FP) Based Measures: Function points are a measure of the functionality provided by a software system. They quantify the inputs, outputs, inquiries, files, and interfaces within the system. Function point-based measures help in estimating project effort, productivity, and quality.
- Cyclomatic Complexity Measures: Cyclomatic complexity measures the complexity of a program by counting the number of independent paths through its control flow. It provides insights into the number of tests required to achieve full coverage and helps identify complex and error-prone areas in the code.
Understanding and applying software measurement and metrics aids in evaluating software quality, estimating project effort and resources, identifying areas for improvement, and making data-driven decisions throughout the software development lifecycle.
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Unit 4: Software Testing:
1. Testing Objectives:
Testing objectives refer to the goals and purposes of software testing. The primary objectives of testing include:
- Finding defects or errors in the software
- Verifying that the software meets the specified requirements
- Ensuring the software functions as expected
- Assessing the quality and reliability of the software
- Gaining confidence in the software's behavior and performance
2. Unit Testing:
Unit testing is the process of testing individual units or components of software in isolation. It focuses on verifying the correctness of individual functions, methods, or modules. Unit testing is typically performed by developers and involves the creation of test cases and the execution of tests to ensure the units work as intended.
3. Integration Testing:
Integration testing is conducted to test the interactions and interfaces between different components or modules of a software system. It aims to detect defects that may arise due to the integration of multiple units. Integration testing can be performed using different approaches, such as top-down integration (testing from high-level modules to low-level modules) or bottom-up integration (testing from low-level modules to high-level modules).
4. Acceptance Testing:
Acceptance testing is performed to determine whether a software system meets the requirements and satisfies the needs of the end-users or stakeholders. It involves executing a set of test cases that simulate real-world usage scenarios. Acceptance testing can be performed by end-users, clients, or a dedicated testing team to gain confidence in the software's functionality and suitability.
5. Regression Testing:
Regression testing is performed when changes are made to the software to ensure that the existing functionality remains intact. It involves retesting previously tested features to detect any unintended side effects or regressions. Regression testing helps ensure that modifications or bug fixes do not introduce new issues into the software.
6. Testing for Functionality:
Testing for functionality involves verifying whether the software meets the specified functional requirements. It focuses on testing the features, inputs, outputs, and behavior of the software to ensure that it performs the intended functions correctly.
7. Testing for Performance:
Testing for performance involves evaluating the software's response time, scalability, reliability, and resource usage under different workload conditions. Performance testing aims to assess the software's ability to handle expected and peak loads, identify performance bottlenecks, and ensure it meets the defined performance criteria.
8. Top-Down and Bottom-Up Testing Strategies:
Top-down testing involves testing high-level modules first, simulating lower-level modules using test drivers. Bottom-up testing, on the other hand, starts with testing low-level modules and simulates higher-level modules using test stubs. Both strategies help identify integration issues and ensure that the modules work together correctly.
9. Structural Testing (White Box Testing):
Structural testing, also known as white-box testing, focuses on testing the internal structure, logic, and code of the software. It involves designing test cases based on the software's internal structure to ensure that all paths and branches of the code are tested and potential defects are identified.
10. Functional Testing (Black Box Testing):
Functional testing, also known as black-box testing, verifies the functionality of the software without considering its internal structure. Test cases are designed based on the functional requirements and specifications, and the software is tested from a user's perspective. Functional testing ensures that the software functions correctly and meets user expectations.
11. Test Data Suit Preparation:
Test data suit preparation involves creating a set of test data that covers different scenarios and conditions to execute during testing. The test data should be designed to validate various aspects of the software's functionality and performance.
12. Alpha and Beta Testing of Products:
Alpha testing is performed by the software development team or a select group of users within the organization. It aims to identify defects and gather feedback on the software's usability from real users. Beta testing, on the other hand, involves releasing the software to a larger group of external users who test the software in a real-world environment. Both alpha and beta testing help uncover defects, gather user feedback, and assess the software's performance and usability before its final release.
13. Static Testing Strategies:
Static testing strategies involve evaluating the software artifacts without executing the code. Some common static testing strategies include:
- Formal Technical Reviews (Peer Reviews): This strategy involves a group of technical experts reviewing software artifacts such as requirements, designs, and code to identify defects, improve quality, and ensure compliance with standards.
- Walkthrough: A walkthrough is a step-by-step examination of the software artifacts to gather feedback, clarify requirements, and identify potential issues. It involves developers, testers, and stakeholders discussing the software and its documentation.
- Code Inspection: Code inspection involves a detailed examination of the source code by a team to detect defects, ensure adherence to coding standards, and improve the code's quality.
- Compliance with Design and Coding Standards: This strategy focuses on ensuring that the software artifacts adhere to predefined design and coding standards. It involves reviewing the artifacts against the established guidelines to maintain consistency and enhance maintainability.
Unit 5: Software Maintenance and Software Project Management:
1. Software Maintenance:
- Software as an Evolutionary Entity: Software is considered an evolutionary entity because it undergoes continuous changes and updates throughout its lifecycle. It is maintained to address defects, accommodate new requirements, enhance functionality, and improve performance.
- Need for Maintenance: Software maintenance is necessary to ensure the software remains usable, reliable, and up-to-date. It involves activities such as bug fixing, patching, updates, and enhancements.
- Categories of Maintenance: Maintenance activities are categorized into three types:
- Preventive Maintenance: Proactive actions taken to prevent potential issues and improve software reliability.
- Corrective Maintenance: Addressing defects, bugs, or errors in the software identified during usage or testing.
- Perfective Maintenance: Enhancing the software by adding new features, improving performance, or optimizing functionality.
- Cost of Maintenance: Software maintenance can account for a significant portion of the total software development cost. It includes costs related to bug fixes, enhancements, documentation updates, and support.
2. Software Re-Engineering and Reverse Engineering:
- Software Re-Engineering: Re-engineering involves the modification or transformation of existing software to improve its structure, architecture, or performance while preserving its intended functionality. It aims to enhance maintainability, extensibility, and efficiency.
- Reverse Engineering: Reverse engineering refers to the process of analyzing and understanding the structure, behavior, and functionality of existing software systems. It involves extracting design and implementation details from the software without access to the original documentation or source code.
3. Software Configuration Management (SCM):
- Software Configuration Management Activities: SCM involves managing changes and controlling the software configuration throughout its lifecycle. It includes activities such as version control, configuration identification, configuration control, configuration status accounting, and configuration auditing.
- Change Control Process: Change control is the process of requesting, reviewing, approving, and implementing changes to the software configuration. It ensures that changes are properly evaluated, documented, and managed to maintain software integrity.
- Software Version Control: Version control is a crucial SCM activity that tracks and manages different versions of software artifacts, such as source code, documentation, and configuration files. It enables collaboration, facilitates concurrent development, and helps manage code changes and releases.
4. Overview of CASE Tools:
- CASE (Computer-Aided Software Engineering) Tools: CASE tools are software applications that support various activities in the software development and maintenance process. They provide automated support for tasks such as requirements management, design modeling, code generation, testing, and project management.
5. Estimation of Various Parameters:
- Estimation of Cost and Efforts: Software project estimation involves predicting the resources (cost, effort, time) required to develop or maintain a software system. Various estimation techniques, such as expert judgment, historical data analysis, and software metrics, are used to estimate parameters like cost, effort, and schedule.
6. Software Project Management:
- Software Project Management: Software project management involves planning, organizing, coordinating, and controlling activities to ensure the successful completion of software projects. It encompasses activities such as project planning, estimation, scheduling, resource management, risk management, and communication.
7. Software Project Estimation:
- Estimation of Cost, Efforts, and Duration: Estimating the cost, efforts, and duration of a software project is crucial for effective planning and resource allocation. Various estimation techniques, such as expert judgment, analogy-based estimation, and parametric models, are used to estimate these project parameters.
8. Software Project Planning:
- Project Planning: Project planning involves defining project objectives, identifying project activities, creating a work breakdown structure, estimating resources, and establishing a project schedule. It also includes identifying risks, defining risk mitigation strategies, and creating a project management plan.
9. Resource Management:
- Resource Allocation: Resource management involves identifying and allocating the necessary resources, such as human resources, equipment, and software tools, for the successful execution of a software project. It ensures that the right resources are available at the right time and in the right quantity.
10. Risk Management:
- Risk Identification, Analysis, and Mitigation: Risk management involves identifying potential risks, assessing their likelihood and impact, and developing strategies to mitigate or minimize those risks. It includes activities such as risk identification, risk analysis, risk prioritization, and risk response planning.
11. Communication and Collaboration:
- Project Communication: Effective communication is essential for coordinating project activities, sharing information, and resolving issues. Project managers facilitate communication among team members, stakeholders, and other project participants to ensure smooth collaboration and alignment.
12. Monitoring and Control:
- Project Monitoring: Project monitoring involves tracking the progress of project activities, comparing it with the planned schedule, and identifying any deviations. It enables project managers to take timely corrective actions to keep the project on track.
- Project Control: Project control involves implementing corrective actions, managing changes, and controlling project variables to ensure that the project objectives are met. It includes activities such as change control, quality control, and configuration management.
